小倉先生の名著「一般気象学」を熟読して，まとめようかなぁ....と．
思いつきなので，すぐやめそう．
かつて，勉強がてらに TeX で「一般気象学」の文章をすべて typeset してしまいましたが，ここで掲載しては著作権にかかわるので，あらすじを書こうかなぁ．と
(2003/11/??)
色々インターネットみてたら，同じようなサイトみつけたので，まとめがてらに英訳を...
(2004/08/21)
太陽の構造はこちら
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英訳...（たぶん三日坊主に..）
We will begin our discussion about the Sun, because almost all phenomena, which is occured in the atmosphere, are associated with the Sun directly or indirectly.
The Sun is a huge sphere formed by gasses. The energy is generated by nuclear diffusion in its core, and emitted to the convective layer in the form of radiation. Subsequently, the energy reaches to the photosphere by the convective effects. The photosphere is the visible spectral part we can see it with naked eyes or telescope which wear a filter. Photosphere have several hundred km thickness and about 7 × 105 km distance from the center of the Sun. Typical temperature is 6,000K ( "K" means absolute temperature, and have a relation as follow : K=\cd + 273.5℃.). Almost all of energies that reaches to the Earth in the form of electromagnetic waves are emitted from this photosphere. The surface of the photosphere have granulation (粒状斑) and maculae (黒点). Occasional flare explosion involves strong magnetic fields.
The chromosphere is covered around the photosphere with 2,500 km thickness, and have about 4,300 K, 10×5 temperature in the lower, upper layer, respectively. In the corona, which is located in the uppest layer of the Sun, ionized particles in high temperature are continuously and divergently emitted from the chromosphere. This is called as solar winds. The velocity of solar wind reaches about 500 km/s and have 106 K high temperature at the obital path of the Earth. As described later, it is thought that solar winds have played an important role in the formation of Earth's atmosphere. Electromagnetic waves, which band range is below 0.1μm length, are emitted from the chromosphere or the bottom of the corona, and is absorbed at the upper layer of the Earth's atmosphere (altitude is 90 〜 200km), thus never reaches to the surface of the Earth.
For later descriptions, we indicate various electromagnetic waves and its names. We, human being, are sensible for specific electromagnetic waves which range is from 0.77 to 0.38μm, and is called visible light. In longer and shorter waves than this range, infrared and ultraviolet range expands respectively. Additionally, X ray is located in the shorter range than ultraviolet's one. Nucleic acids in creature cell tend to absorb 0.263μm-long ultraviolte waves, and proteins also tend to absorb specific ultraviolet range from 0.27 to 0.29μm long waves. Therefore extreme shower of ultraviolet ray makes chromosome in creature's cell nuclei destroyed and impossible to increase cells, while we like sunbath. Solar radiation contains a fraction of ultraviolet rays originally. Almost all of solar energy is contained in the wave range from 0.2 to 0.4μm long, and about a half of all solar energy is in visible band (Chapter 5). Ultraviolet ray is harmful for the creature living on Earth's surface, while its energy is little. Therefore we are protected by the absoption action of the ultraviolet ray.
Needless to say, the Earth is a member of solar system planets. Table 1.1 summarizes planetary properties within our discussion. Generally, solar planets are categorized to two groups, terrestrial planets and Jupitarian planets. Terrestrial planets include Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Jupitar and Saturn is representatives of Jupitarian planets. In general, terrestrial planets have less volume and mass than Jupitarian planets, and density is greater, temperature is higher and have solid surface and no rings have few satellites. They have great differences between planets in the atmospheric constituents. We will take care for its detail. As shown in Table 1.2, there various differences among the terrestrial planets. Will mention about the technical terms in Table 1.1 and 1.2. little by little.
We will review about atoms and molecules, because we will discuss the each planets' atmosphere later.
All of substances consist of atmos or molecules, regardless of their state, gas, liquid and sold. Every atoms consist of atomic nucleus, which have protons and neutrons, and electrons rotating around the nucleus. The number of protons in atomic nucleus depend on each elements. The proton number of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen and iron are one, six, eight and twenty-six, respectively. Almost all elements have the equivalent neutron number with their proton number*. Protons and electron have positive and negative charge respectively, and neutrons are electrically neutral. Electrons are often emitted toward the outside of their orbits (section 2.3). In this case, remained atom becomes positive ion. A electron have only a 1,836th mass of a proton or a neutron. Therefore, a mass of atom is approximatelly equivalent to the sum between proton's mass and neutron's one. The lightest atom of all is hydrogen (H). Atomic hydrogen generally consists of a proton and a electron, which mass is 1.67×10-27. The second lightest atom is helium (He), which neclues has two protons, two neutrons and two electrons.
Molecules are produced by some atoms. For example, Molecular oxygen has two atomic oxygens. Each nucleus of atomic oxygen has eight protons and eight neutrons. For later description, we need to know the way of quantifying the relative weights of molecule. Molecular weight is often used for this purpose. We assume the molecular weight of molecular oxygen as thirty-two, it corresponds the weight of another molecule. For example, water molecule have 18.02 molecular weights, which consists of two hydrogen molecules and a oxygen molecule.
Let us return the main issue. it is thought that every planets, including the Earth, in solar system have been formed by the aggregation of interstellar gasses and cosmic nebula, which were composed of suspened light atoms like hydrogens and heliums (section 1.3). It is widely recognized that the Earth has been born about 4.6 billion years ago. However Table 1.3 and Table 1.4 indicate chemical components of the Earth is absolutely different from the solar one. According to Table 1.3 (a), the main components of the Earth's crust, which is located the surface of the solid Earth, are oxygen and silicon. This results leads to that much of rocks and minerals are the silicon-oxided compounds from iron, aluminum, sodium, calcium, kalium and magnesium. For example, sand is mainly consists of silicon-dioxide, and clay is formed by silicon, oxygen and alminum. Whereas Table 1.3 (b) indicates the chemical constituents of solid Earth is far different from the crust one. Solid Earth have one-third mass as iron. It indicates solid Earth have the core, which mainly consists of heavy substances, iron or nickel, in the center of itself, and it is covered by the mantle, which consists of silicon oxide, and the crust. On the other hands, Table 1.3 (c) indicates hydrogen and helium occupies 99 percent of the Earth's mass. The fact, the mass of hydrogen and helium count up 99% mass of universe totally, is consistent for it.
Next, the Table 1.4 shows the chemical profile of Earth's atmosphere. However Earth's atmosphere have a lot of water vapor, and its distribution is very heterogenous. On the other hands, chemical profile of atmosphere except water vapor is approximately conservative until about 80 km altitude. Table 1.4 shows the chemical profiles of dry atmosphere. Approximately speaking, Earth's atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen molecule and 21% oxygen in volume expression. This profile indicates Earth's atmosphere have less hydrogen and helium than the Sun's profile. Although the Earth have been born due to the aggregation of intersteller gasses and cosmic nebula along with the Sun, What does make this discrepancies?
We will discuss about this question in the later section. By the way, how about the other planets? Recent years, we come to know the details about it exponetially for the progress of unmanned spaceship technologies which is run by United States or Soviet Union (Russia Fed.). Until 1960's, the Venus seemed to be one of the twin with the Earth. The Venus is the nearest planet from the Earth in the solar system, and similar to the Earth in size and density. However, recent observation indicates the difference of atmosphere between the Venus and the Earth. The Venus is covered with dense and thick atmosphere, and has 90 times atmospheric pressure as the Earth's one. In the Earth's ocean, the pressure increases about 1 atm. per 10 meter depth. Therefore the pressure in the surface of the Venus's atmosphere corresponds to the that in the 900m depth of the Earth's ocean. The Venus has about 96% carbon dioxide, and the remain is mainly nitrogen gas. The surface temperature of the Venus is approximately 720 K.
The other hands, the Mars has diluted atmosphere, and has only 0.6% pressure as the Earth's one. The chemical constituents of the Mars' atmosphere are 95% carbon dioxide and nitrogen and argon. The surface temperature is approximately 180 K cold. This fact leads to that polar region of the Mars is covered with ices, which consist of frozen carbon dioxide mainly. A part of these ices subliminates and freezes, in summer and winter, respectively.
Among the Jovian planets, the Jupitar and the Saturn are large in particular. The main constituent of Jupitar's atmosphere are 85% hydrogen, 15% helium. The Jupitar has methan (CH4), anmonia (NH3) as trace constituents. This profile is similar to the Sun's one. The Jupitar has liquid hydrogen under its surface layer, and strong magnetic fields. In addition, the Jupitar has approximetely double radiation energy as the Sun itself. This is why the Jupitar is called the failed result of the planet as the Sun.
As described in previous section, present chemical profile of the Earth's atmosphere is absolutely different from not only the Sun's one but also that of the Venus and the Mars. About this question, a lot of research are progressed intensely.
Cosmic space is filled with light elements like hydrogen and helium, and with interstellar nebula which consist of fine solid particle below 0.1μm in diameter. Interstellar nebula is derived from the dust after star explosions of previous generations. These substances include the heavy elements above a carbon. The density and motion distribution of this nebula is heterogenous. The dense parts come to increase their mass and attraction, and it makes their temperature high. The nuclear diffusion is occurred when their temperature is over the critical value. The Sun was born as a fixed star along these processes.
At that time, some interstellar substances rotate around the Sun, and one of them have become a primitive planet. Planetesimals have also been born in this processes. In case of small planetesimals, their representative size is about several millimeters, and becomes 10 km and 1015kg for a million years (Figure 1.3). Planets and planetesimals have collided each other, and present nine planets have been born. It is recognized that the Earth have become present mass order about 4.6 trillion years ago. Why do the Sun and all planets rotates similar direction? Why do all planets have same orbital directions with the Sun rotation's one? Why are all the planets located in the equatoral section? These questions are very interesting, however these are out of the aim of this text. Therefore we will not discuss about them here.
It is recognized that primitive Earth's atmosphere mainly consisted of hydrogen and helium like the Sun, however the detail is still unknown. Anyway, primitive atmosphere in the Earth has been brown by a specific solar wind, which is the flow of radical fine paticle generated by flare explosions. Present atmosphere is derived from the evolution of gasses degassed from solid Earth's surface secondary.
For the reason of degassing processes, two hypotheses are provided. The one is that the degassing was excited by the drops or collisions of many planetesimals (the surface craters of the moon were generated by this processes.). Another hypothesis is continuous volcano activities. The Earth's atmosphere has 88% water vapor, 6% carbon dioxide, 2% nitrogen, 1〜2% sulfur, iron, 0.3% chlorine and 0.1% argon in partial pressure ratio (section 3.1). As described later, these erupted gasses contain the atmospheric constituents in the Earth, except oxygen.
First of all, we will mention about water vapor. Figure 1.4 presents global water cycle, and indicates that water exist varous states in the Earth. The largest reservior of water is the ocean, and contains 97% water of all. Secondly ices are distributed on the Antarc continent and Arctic ocean, and its abandance reaches 2.4% of all. In addition, the Earth has 0.6% fresh water (ground water) and 0.02% fresh water (lakes, rivers). Water vapor content in the atmosphere is only 0.001% of all. This is why water vapor in the atmosphere have the containing limits. Therefore when the content water vapor derived from degassing process exceeded its content limit, the excess of vapor became clouds and precipitations. These water have become ocean with filling the basin in the Earth. It is unclear when the ocean has been born, however ancient metamorphic rocks derived sedimentary rocks about 3.8 billion years ago indicates the existance of large-scale ocean then.
The birth of ocean in the Earth have dramatically made the different history from other terrestrial planets like the Venus or the Mars. At first, degassing trace constituents like the compounds of sulfur and chlorine (sulfur dioxide or hydrochloric acid) have melted in the ocean. Therefore primitive ocean was acidic solution, and carbon dioxide was unable to melt there.
Physical state of atmosphere (temperature, humidity, pressure, ...) varies horizontally, however the vertical variation of it is more extreme. When people in summer area is suffered from its hot weather, they do not have to go a trip to the Arctic area. Because we can get cool atmosphere that temperature is below some 10 degrees of Cercius, if we go to some 10 km altitude. In meteorological expression, the atmosphere is classfied from some layers in vertical direction. The way of classfying layers depend on their focus of physical value. Generally, we use the method based on temperature as shown in Fig.\ref{fig:2-1}.
The lowest layer of atmosphere is called "Troposphere", that is about 11 km thick in average\footnote{The altitude of tropopause at the equator and high latitude were approximately 16km and 8km, respectively. In mid-latitude, that altitude is not constant. it becomes low and high involving with mid-latitude low and high pressure, respectively. Its difference reaches several km thick.}. The word of "tropo" is derived from the concept to rotate or to mix something in Greek. In the troposphere, atmosphere is well-mixed by various motion vertically. Almost of meteorolgical and ordinary phenomina are occured there such as rain, cloud, low pressure, front, typhoon, ... and so on. In this layer temperature decreases with increasing altitude. The rate of decrease is about 6.5 \cd per 1km (Table \ref{tbl:2-1}). This layer range is from ground to around 11 km altitude. From this altitude, temperature became approximately constant. This is the lower part of stratosphere.
It was a century ago that stratosphere overlying above troposphere was discovered. In 1902, the presence of stratosphere was confirmed by the collection of baloon data. Unmanned baloon with thermometer was launched and it bursts for low pressure. Scientists accumulated these data. Till those day, it was believed that atmospheric temperature decreases with increasing altitude to the end of atmosphere like troposphere. For these reason, it was a very sensational discovery that reveals the presence of constant temperature layer. Therefore this layer was named as constant-temperature layer. However, A Piccard who was a physist in Switzerland had reached to 16 km altitude in 1931 with a baloon made by himself. And in post WW2, rockets came to used for observation. As a result, it was revealed that temperature above constant-temperature layer increases with increasing altitude, and extreme temperature reaches 270 K at 50 km high approximately. Therefore stratosphere at the range from 11 km to 50km in altitude in which temperature increases with increasing altitude came to be called as stratosphere.
Generally speaking, pressure, temperature and density of gases have a relation one another with the equation of state. it is experientally-known that volume V, mass m, pressure p and temperature T have following relationship.
p V = m R T
eq:3-1
This is called as the equation of state of ideal gas, where R is specific constant depending on sorts of gases and called gas constant. If we assume ρ as the density of gas, it can be expressed ρ=m/V, therefore the equation of state of specific gas is
p = R \rho T
eq:3-2
If we consider specific volume α(=1/ρ), it can be expressed
p \alpha = R T
eq:3-3
The word of "climate" means the average of meteorological parameter such as temperature or precipitation and so on, however it does not have obvious definition. When we mention that "In this year, it has more rain than ordinary year", "ordinary year" means the average during three decades. Ordinary year is updated every decade with last three decades. For example, the ordinary year of 1998 indicates the average between 1961 and 1990.
Climatology treat how the ordinary average of temperature or precipitation distribute on the Earth, how we categorize the climate in certain region. However, the recent concern focused in meteorology is the variation of average (during a month or a year). For example, "What is the reason that the average temperature during this January is extremely lower than last year's one?" or "We wonder whether the average temperature in next year is high or low." In other words, the most important issue of climatology is the resolve of global change and the prediction of future climate, under the recognition that ordinary averages varies with era.
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アーク雲 Arc アジア・モンスーン asia monsoon 暖かい雨 warm rain 亜熱帯高気圧 subtropical anticyclone 亜熱帯ジェット気流 subtropical jet stream アボガドロの仮説 Avogadro's hypothesis アボガドロの定数 Avogadro's number 雨粒 raindrop アメダス AMeDAS あられ graupel pellet アリューシャン高気圧 Aleutian high アルベド albedo アンヴィル anvil アンサンブル予報 ensemble forcast イオン ion 移行層 transition layer? 諫早豪雨 heavy rain at Isahaya 位置のエネルギー potential energy １振子日 a pendulum day 一般気体定数 universal gas constant 一般風 environment wind 移流逆転層 advectional inversion layer? 移流霧 advection fog インド・モンスーン Indian monsoon ウインド・プロファイラー wind profiler ウィーンの変位則 Wien's displacement law ウェークロウ wake low ウォーカー循環 Walker Circulation 渦度 vorticity 渦粘性係数 coeficient of eddy viscosity 運動エネルギー kinematic energy 運動量 momentum 雲粒 cloud droplet エイトケン核 Aitken nuclei エクマン境界層 Ekman layer エマグラム emagram エルニーニョ el nino effect 監視海域 monitoring waters, surveillance waters エーロゾル aerosol 沿岸湧昇 coastal upwelling 遠日点 aphelion 遠心力 centrifugal force(CF) エンソ ENSO エンタルピー enthalpy 鉛直シア vertical shear 鉛直スケール vertical scale 鉛直対流 vertical convection エントレイメント entrainment 層 entrainment layer オイラー的平均 Euler mean? 小笠原気団 Ogasawara air mass オゾン ozone 層 ozone layer ホール ozone hole オホーツク海気団 Okhotsk air mass 温位 potential temperature 温室効果 green house effect ガス green house gas 温帯低気圧 midlatitude cyclone, extratropical cyclone 温暖前線 warm front 温度 temperature 減率 lapse rate of temperature 風 thermal wind 躍層 thermocline
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外気圏 exosphere 海風前線 sea breeze front 海霧 sea fog, sea mist, haar 海面水位 sea surface level 海面水温 sea surface temperature 海面補正 reduction to sea-level, reduction to mean sea level 海洋性気団 maritime 海陸風 land and sea breeze カオス chaos 化学エネルギー chemical energy 角運動量 angular momentum 絶対 absolute angular momentum 保存則 theorem of conservation of angular momentum 拡散係数 diffusion coefficient, diffusion factor 角速度 angular rate, angular speed, angular velocity 可航半円 navigable semicircle かさ halo 可視光 visible light ガストフロント gust front 火星 Mars 下層ジェット気流 low-level jet 加速度 acceleration かなとこ雲（アンヴィル） anvil 過飽和度 supersaturation, super saturation 仮温度 virtural temperature 過冷却水 supercooled water 環境の風 environmental wind?/general wind? 乾湿温度計 psychrometer, wet and dry bulb thermometer, wet-and-dry bulb thermometer 慣性 inertia 系 inertia system, inertial system, system of inertia 振動 inertial oscillation 間接循環 indirect circulation? 乾燥温位 dry potential temperature? 乾燥空気 dry air 乾燥静的エネルギー dry static energy 乾燥断熱減率 dry adiabatic lapse rate 寒帯気団 polar air mass 寒帯前線ジェット気流 polar front jet 間氷期 interglacial, interglacial epoch, interglacial period 寒冷渦 cold vortex 寒冷低気圧 cold low, cold core cyclone, cold-core low 気圧傾度力 force of barometric gradient, force of barometric pressure gradient, force of pressure gradient 気圧の谷 low-pressure trough, pressure trough, trough, trough of low pressure 気圧の尾根 low-pressure ridge, pressure ridge, ridge, ridge of low pressure????????? 気温の谷 trough 幾何光学 geometrical [geometric] optics 危険半円 dangerous semicircle 気候 climate 最適期 optional period? システム climate system モデル climate model 気象衛星 met satellite, meterological satellite, weather eye, weather satellite 季節風 anniversary winds, monsoon, periodic wind, seasonal wind 気体定数 gas constant 気体分子論 gas molecular theory 気団 air mass 性雷雨 ? 輝度温度 luminance temperature, radiance temperature 逆転 backing 逆転層 inversion layer, reversed layer キャノピー層 canopy layer 吸収率 absorptance, absorbtion factor, absorptivity, index of absorption, rate of absorption 求心加速度 centripetal acceleration 凝結核 condensation nucleus 凝結過程 condensation process? 凝結高度 lifted condensation level 凝結凍結核 condensational-freezing nucleus 凝結熱 heat of condensation 凝集 agglomeration, aggregation, coagulation, cohesion, flocculate, flocculation 極気団 polar air mass 極軌道衛星 polar satellite 極成層圏雲 Polar Stratospheric Cloud 極夜ジェット polar night jet 巨大核 giant nucleus 霧 fog キルヒホッフの法則 Kirchhoff's law キロモル kilomole 近日点 lower apsis // perihelion 金星 Venus 雲のクラスター cloud cluster 雲の分類 cloud category クラカトアの東風 Krakatoan easterly wind 傾圧大気 baroclinic atmosphere 傾圧不安定波 baroclinically unstable wave 傾度風 gradient wind 経度平均 longitude mean? 決定論的カオス理論 deterministic chaos theory ケルビン波 Kelvin wave 原子 atom 顕熱 sensible heat 高温期 hypsithermal period 光合成 photosynthesis 格子点 lattice point 降水セル precipitation cell? 降水バンド precipitation band? 好晴積雲 cumulus in the clear sky 高層天気図 upper air chart 高度角 ???altitude 国際標準大気 international standard atmosphere 黒体放射 black body radiation 黒点 sunspot コリオリの力 Coriolis force コリオリ・パラメーター Coriolis parameter 混合比 mixing ratio
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サイクロン cyclone 歳差運動 Larmor precession 細胞状対流 cellular convection 砂漠地帯 desert area サーマル thermal 作用・反作用の法則 law of action and reaction 酸素同位体 oxygen isotope 散乱 scattering ジェット気流 jet stream ジオポテンシャル高度 geopotential height 紫外線 ultraviolet ray 時角 hour angle 時間スケール time scale 自己増殖 self-propagation 仕事 work シスク CISK 湿球温位 wet-bulb potential temperature 湿球温度 wet-bulb temperature 湿潤断熱減率 moist adiabatic lapse rate 湿舌 moist tongue シベリア気団 Siberian air mass 斜面上昇風 anabatic wind シャルルの法則 Charles' law 収束 convergence 自由大気 free atmosphere 自由対流 free convection 終端速度 terminal velocity 集中豪雨 local severe rain 重力 gravity force 流 gravity current 順圧大気 barotropic atmosphere 純酸素理論 ?? 順転 veering 準二年周期振動 quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) 昇華 sublimation 核 sublimation nucleus 蒸気霧 steam fog 条件付不安定 conditional instability 上昇霧 ascending fog? 状態方程式 quation of state 蒸発散 evapotranspiration 蒸発熱 heat of vapourization 小氷期 little ice age 晶癖 crystal habit 縄文海進 Johmon transgression 触媒サイクル catalytic cycle? 深海底コア sea floor core?? 新ドリアス期 Younger Dryas period? 陣風前線 gust front 水温躍層 thermocline 水蒸気画像 vapor image? 水素 hydrogen 水平スケール horizontal scale 水平対流 horizontal convection 数値実験 numerical experiment 数値シミュレーション numerical simulation 数値予報 numerical forcasting スコールライン squall line 筋状の雲（筋雲）=巻雲 Cirrus (Ci) ステファン・ボルツマンの法則 Stefan-Boltzmann law ストークスのドリフト Stokes drift スーパーセル supercell 静水圧平衡 hydrostatic equilibrium 成層圏 stratosphere の突然昇温 sudden warming in stratosphere ⇒天気に書いてたとおもう 成層圏界面 stratopause 静的安定性（度） hydrostatic stability 静力学的安定性 hydrostatic stability 静力学平衡 hydrostatic equilibrium 赤緯 declination 積雲 cumulus (Cu) 赤外線 infrared ray 赤外放射 infrared radiation 赤道低圧帯 equatorial low pressure belt 赤道湧昇 equatorial upwelling?? 積乱雲 cumulonimbus (Cb) 世代交代 alternation of generations 接触凍結核 contact freezing nucleus? 接線速度 tangential velocity 絶対安定 absolute stability 絶対不安定 absolute instability 接地逆転層 ground inversion layer? 接地層 ground layer?? 切離低気圧 cut-off low 旋衡風 cyclostrophic wind 前線霧 frontal fog 前線形成過程 front forming process?? 前線消滅過程 front vanishing process?? 潜熱 latent heat 総観規模 synoptic scale 層状の雲 stratiform cloud 相対湿度 relative humidity 相当温位 equivalent potential temperature 相当黒体温度 equivalent black body temperature? 相の変化 phase change 組織化されたマルチセル雷雨 organizing multicellular thunderstorm
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大核 macronucleus 大気海洋結合モデル ? 大気の乱れ atmospheric disturbance 台風 typhoon 太平洋高気圧 Pacific anticyclone 太陽定数 solar constant 太陽の黒点数 sunspot number 太陽風 solar wind 太陽放射 solar radiation 大陸性気団 continental air mass 対流 convection 雲 convective cloud 混合層 convective mixing layer 不安定 convective instability 対流圏 troposphere 対流圏界面 tropopause ダウンバースト downburst 脱ガス degassing 脱出速度 escape velocity 竜巻 spout 谷風 valley breeze ダルトンの法則 Dalton's law of partial pressure 暖域 warm sector 炭酸ガス carbon dioxide 断熱図 adiabatic chart 断熱変化 adiabatic change 短波放射 short wave radiation 地球型惑星 terrestrial planet 地球軌道要素 地球放射 terrestrial radiation 地衡風 geostrophic wind 地軸の傾斜角 inclination of Earth axis 地質時代 geological age チベット高原 Tibetan plateau 着氷 ice accretion 中緯度低気圧 midlatitude cyclone 中間圏 mesosphere 中間圏界面 mesopause 中性子 meson 中層大気 middle atmosphere 超長波 ultra-long wave 長波放射 long wave radiation 直接循環 direct circulation 沈降逆転層 subsidence invesion layer 冷たい雨 cold rain 定圧比熱 specific heat at constant pressure 抵抗力 drag 定容比熱 specific heat at constant volume デリンジャー現象 Dellinger phenomenon, Dellinger effect 転向点 point of recurvature 電子 electron 天頂角 zenith angle 電離層 ionosphere 同位体 isotope 等温位面解析 isentropic surface analysis 透過率 transmissivity 動径速度 radial velocity 凍結核 freezing nucleus 等高度線 isohypse 動粘性係数 kinematic viscosity 突風前線 gust front ドップラーレーダー Doppler radar ドブソン単位 Dobson unit ドライスロット dry slot トラフ trough トルネード tornado
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内部エネルギー internal energy 長崎豪雨 heavy rain at Nagasaki 夏半球 summer hemisphere?? 南東貿易風 southeasterly trade wind?? 南方振動 southern oscillation 二酸化炭素 carbon dioxide ヌッセルト数 Nusselt number 熱 heat 熱塩循環 thermohaline circulation 熱圏 thermosphere 熱帯外低気圧 extra tropic cyclone 熱帯気団 tropical air mass 熱帯収束帯 intertropical convergence zone 熱帯低気圧 tropical cyclone 熱的低気圧 thermal low 熱の伝導 thermal conduction 熱力学の第１法則 first law of thermodynamics 粘度 viscosity ノックス（NOx） nitrogen oxides ノン・スーパーセル竜巻 non-supercell spout
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灰色放射 gray radiation 梅雨前線 Bai-u front 波数 wave number バック形成型 back building type 発散 divergence ハドレー循環 Hardley circulation ハリケーン hurricane 反射率 reflectivity 万有引力の法則 law of universal gravitation 反流 return current 日傘効果 umbrella effect 光解離 photodissociation 光電離 photoionization 非線形 nonlinear ヒートアイランド現象 heat island phenomenon ひょう hail 氷期 ice age 氷晶 ice crystal 核 ice-formin nucleus 氷床コア ice sheet core 表面張力 surface tension 風成循環 wind-driven circulation フェレル循環 Ferrel circulation フーコー振子 Foucault's pendulum フックエコー hook echo 沸騰点 boiling point 冬半球 winter hemisphere?? ブライトバンド bright band プラネタリー波 planetary wave プランクの法則 Planck's law ブリューワー・ドブソン循環 Brewer-Dobson circulation フロン chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) 分圧 partial pressure 分子 molecule 量 molecular weight 平均分子量 average molecular weight 併合過程 coalescence process 閉塞前線 occluded front 平年値 normal value ベナール形対流 Benard convection (* "a" の上にクレマ？) ヘリウム Helium ベルソン西風 Berson westerlies 変形の場 deformation field 偏西風 westerlies 波動 westerly wave 偏東風 easterlies ボイルの法則 Boyle's law 貿易風 trade wind 帯逆転層 trade wind inversion layer?? 放射強度 radiant intensity 放射霧 radiation fog 放射性同位体 radioactive isotope 放射対流平衡 radioactive-convective equilibrium 放射平衡温度 radioactive equilibrium temperature? 放射率 emissivity 飽和 saturation 水蒸気圧 saturation vapour pressure 水蒸気密度 saturation vapour density 北東貿易風 northeasterly trade wind ぼたん雪 snowflakes ポテンシャル高度 potential altitude? ポテンシャル不安定 potential instability ホドグラフ hodogaph ボルツマンの定数 Boltzmann constant
ま
マウンダー極小期 Maunder minimum 摩擦力 frictional force 窓領域 window region (atmospheric window region) マルチセル multi-cell 見かけの力 apparent force ミー散乱 Mie scattering 密度流 density current ミランコビッチ Milankovitch ミリ波レーダー millimeter wave radar メソ・サイクロン meso-cyclone メソスケール mesoscale メソ対流系 meso-convective system? メソハイ meso high メソロー meso low メタン methane 目の壁雲 eye wall 木星 Jupiter 型惑星 Jovian planets 持ち上げ凝結高度 lifting condensation level もや mist モンスーン monsoon
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夜光雲 noctilucent cloud 山風 mountain breeze ヤンガードリアス期 Younger Dryas period 融解熱 heat of fusion 湧昇 upwelling 雄大積雲 Cumulus congestus (Cu con) 雪 snow 溶液 solution 陽子 proton
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雷雨性高気圧 meso high / thunderstorm anticyclone? ライダー lidar ライミング riming ラグランジュ的平均 Lagrangian mean / Lagrangian average らせん状降雨帯 spiral rain band ラニーニャ La nina 乱渦 (らんか) eddy リッジ ridge リモートセンシング remote sensing 冷気外出流 cold out flow 冷気プール cold pool レイリー散乱 Rayleigh scattering レイリー数 Rayleigh number レーウィンゾンデ rawin sonde レーダー radar ロケット rocket ロスビー波 Rossby wave 露点温度 dew-point temperature
わ
惑星規模 planetary scale
アルファベット
Ｄ層 D layer Ｅ層 E layer Ｆ1層 F1 layer Ｆ2層 F2 layer IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Chage ＭＵレーダー MU radar TOGA (熱帯海洋全球大気変動研究計画） UNEP (国連環境計画) United Nations Environment Programme WMO (世界気象機関) World Meteorological Organization
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